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in cryptography, a caesar cipher, also known as caesar’s cipher, the shift cipher, caesar’s code or caesar shift, is one of the simplest and most widely known encryption techniques. it is a type of substitution cipher in which each letter in the plaintext is replaced by a letter some fixed number of positions down the alphabet. for example, with a shift of [#], a would be replaced by d, b would become e, and so on. the method is named after julius caesar, who used it to communicate with his generals. the encryption step performed by a caesar cipher is often incorporated as part of more complex schemes, such as the vigenère cipher, and still has modern application in the rot[#] system. as with all single-alphabet substitution ciphers, the caesar cipher is easily broken and in practice offers essentially no communication security.
shakespeare produced most of his known work between [#] and [#]. his early plays were mainly comedies and histories, genres he raised to the peak of sophistication and artistry by the end of the sixteenth century. next he wrote mainly tragedies until about [#], including hamlet, king lear, and macbeth, considered some of the finest examples in the english language. in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy during his lifetime, and in [#], two of his former theatrical colleagues published the first folio, a collected edition of his dramatic works that included all but two of the plays now recognised as shakespeare’s.
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although no attendance records for the period survive, most biographers agree that shakespeare was educated at the king’s new school in stratford, a free school chartered in about [#], a quarter of a mile from his home. grammar schools varied in quality during the elizabethan era, but the curriculum was dictated by law throughout england, and the school would have provided an intensive education in latin grammar and the classics. at the age of [#], shakespeare married the [#]-year-old anne hathaway. the consistory court of the diocese of worcester issued a marriage licence on [#] november. two of hathaway’s neighbours posted bonds the next day assuring that there were no impediments to the marriage. the couple may have arranged the ceremony in some haste, since the worcester chancellor allowed the marriage banns to be read once instead of the usual three times, and anne’s pregnancy could have been the reason for this. six months after the marriage she gave birth to a daughter, susanna, who was baptised on [#] may. twins, son hamnet and daughter judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised on [#] february. hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of [#] and was buried on [#] august.
after the birth of the twins, there are few historical traces of shakespeare until he is mentioned as part of the london theatre scene in [#]. because of this gap, scholars refer to the years between [#] and [#] as shakespeare’s “lost years”. biographers attempting to account for this period have reported many apocryphal stories. nicholas rowe, shakespeare’s first biographer, recounted a stratford legend that shakespeare fled the town for london to escape prosecution for deer poaching. another eighteenth-century story has shakespeare starting his theatrical career minding the horses of theatre patrons in london. john aubrey reported that shakespeare had been a country schoolmaster. some twentieth-century scholars have suggested that shakespeare may have been employed as a schoolmaster by alexander hoghton of lancashire, a catholic landowner who named a certain william shakeshafte in his will. no evidence substantiates such stories other than hearsay collected after his death.
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here upon legrand arose with a grave and stately air, and brought me the beetle from a glass case in which it was enclosed. it was a beautiful scarabaeus, and, at that time, unknown to naturalists — of course a great prize in a scientific point of view. there were two round black spots near one extremity of the back, and a long one near the other. the scales were exceedingly hard and glossy, with all the appearance of burnished gold. the weight of the insect was very remarkable, and, taking all things into consideration, i could hardly blame jupiter for his opinion respecting it.
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